Ancient Egyptian and Nubian funerary figurines: classification and meaning

Abstract

Ancient Egyptian and Nubian funerary figurines are variously described as shabtis, shawabti(y)s and us(c)hebtis. A relationship has been established between the lexicon and the time of their manufacture and deposit. Shabti is first attested in the 13th dynasty and is employed in the New Kingdom; shawabti appears in the 17th dynasty and is the terminology of choice during the 19th dynasty at Deir el-Medina; ushebti is initially evidenced in the 21st dynasty and this descriptor is then generally used through to the demise of the figurines in the Ptolemaic Period. Notwithstanding the various relationships, the use of language in publications considering these objects is inconsistent and mislead..