Climate extremes and socioeconomic impact of El Niño and La Niña events

Abstract

El Niño and La Niña are critical climate phenomena influencing global weather patterns and socioeconomic conditions. This review provides a comprehensive analysis of their mechanisms, characteristics, and significant environmental and economic impacts. El Niño events, characterized by increased sea surface temperatures in the central and eastern Pacific, disrupt typical atmospheric circulation, leading to warmer winters in North America and droughts in Australia. Conversely, La Niña, with cooler sea surface temperatures, enhances hurricane activity in the Atlantic and induces wetter conditions in the northern United States. These phenomena, occurring irregularly every two to seven years, hav..